Lobotomy

 

 

The concept of lobotomy, in its entirety, has been quite infamous and controversial since its beginning in the early 1930’s. It is a form of psychosurgery and has been known to be invasive, risky, and is not a procedure for the faint of heart. As described in the book, a prefrontal lobotomy is the disconnection of the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain. Lobotomies were preformed to attempt to treat patients with severe mental disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. Early performers of this procedure were not so appalled by its true nature, since it wasn’t any worse than other invasive therapies at the time. American neurologist and psychiatrist Walter Freeman began the lobotomy procedures in the US. He did not possess any medical certification and he seemed to do things very unprofessionally. One specific instrument utilized to perform the procedures was a common household ice pick and since the procedure would only take less than ten minutes, he would either perform it in his office or in his personal vehicle. Despite the many flaws and unhygienic methods, Freeman spread his success through the media and soon after, lobotomies became a more accepted form of psychosurgery. Freeman not only treated individuals with severe mental disorders, he also treated children under the age of eighteen, who showed behavioral problems.

 

Many short and long term effects are now known to be dependent on lobotomy procedures. Memory disorders were prevalent after the procedure had been conducted on an individual, so were high levels of apathy, reduced ability to plan for the future and think of future as a concept, distractibility, and loss of emotional expression. Like mentioned before, these negative outcomes completely isolate a person from society. By conducting a lobotomy you are removing the human factor in a person and leaving them with no way to ever be normal again. I agree with finding various measures -even though they may be drastic- to help those in need of a solution. We need to protect our species and do what we can to cure the ill. What is not right is the lack of cleanliness and humanity while performing such procedures. They should have done more to help with the pain and suffering individuals went through during the procedure.

 

The following video shows the history of the lobotomy procedure and towards the end you can see the emergence of medicinal drugs which replaced lobotomies and other related therapies. In a way, you can see as the video progresses, the similarity these new psychoactive drugs have to dangerous psychosurgeries of the past. New drugs seem harmless and may present a positive outcome short term, but we won't know their true long term effects until much later. Like the once glorified lobotomy, these medications seem promising, yet we need to see the warnings and make sure what we want to get rid of is worth all the risks. Our treatment of mental disorders are changing drastically everyday, we just need to not be fooled by an innocent looking pill. It may just be as harmful as sticking a sharp metal pick underneath your eyelid to intrude into what makes you you.

 

Discovery of Chemical Transmission at Synapses

 

Nobel Prize winner, Biologist Otto Loewi, made a great discovery in contribution to physiology by demonstrating, through experimentation, the messages sent by nerves through the release of chemicals. This occurrence took place in 1920 and even with the clear evidence displayed by his experiment, it wasn’t until the 1950’s that other researchers adopted the idea that chemical transmissions are more common and frequent than electrical transmissions.

 The truly most special and peculiar detail in Otto Loewi‘s idea of chemical synapses was how it actually occurred. The details of his idea came to him in a dream. This event not only made an accurate production of data and showed how to execute such an idea, but it also took dreams and what they represent to a whole other level.

Loewi's frog experiment gave much insight on what was really occurring at the synapse and showed that the method by which nerves send their messages was not only through electrical synapses, but was more often chemical.

 

 

The Death of a Neuron

          Within the two modules read, we were informed of the living neuron. The active neurons who receive information and transmit information to other cells and which every normal being possesses. There are specialized types of neurons and their structures, shapes, and sizes vary depending on their function. Neurons are composed of important parts, which allow for fast and accurate transfers of messages.

     The proceeding video briefly explains the important parts in a neuron

and it's basic functions.

 

 

                 A topic not covered in these specific modules and which I found very interesting and wanted to research further, was not only the living aspect of a neuron, but also it's death. Neurons are the longest living cells in the body, but many of them die during differentiation and migration. Some diseases of the brain are the result of the unnatural deaths of neurons.

           For example:

 - In Parkinson’s disease, neurons that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine die off in the basal ganglia, an area of the brain that controls body movements. The brain can no longer control the body and people shake and jerk in spasms.

- In Huntington’s disease, a genetic mutation causes over-production of a neurotransmitter called glutamate, which kills neurons in the basal ganglia. As a result, people twist and writhe uncontrollably.

- In Alzheimer’s disease, unusual proteins build up in and around neurons in the neocortex and hippocampus, parts of the brain that control memory. When these neurons die, people lose their capacity to remember and their ability to do everyday tasks. Physical damage to the brain and other parts of the central nervous system can also kill or disable neurons.

- Severe brain injury or stroke can kill neurons outright or slowly starve them of the oxygen and nutrients they need to survive.

- Spinal cord injury can disrupt communication between the brain and muscles when neurons lose their connection to axons located below the site of injury. These neurons may still live, but they lose their ability to communicate.

One method of cell death results from the release of excess glutamate.

Macrophages (green) eat dying neurons in order to clear debris.

 

Animal Research

While reading through these various cartoons, one can see why the ethical disputes on nonhuman animal research have yet to be resolved. There are two opposing views on what is right and therefore mutual agreement may never occur. Personally, it is a very difficult topic and it is extremely difficult to completely side with one particular view alone. Looking at it from an evolutionary perspective, we have to find out how to survive and we expect to do anything possible to overcome the weakness within our species. It is when the truth and the reality of the situation -such as the maltreatment, harm, murder, and torture of innocent animals- is shown, that my views shift. Both sides have rights and wrongs and choosing one over the other is almost impossible. I agree with the "minimalists" who believe harm to animals should be minimized, while at the same time finding other ways to attain knowledge. "It is better to inflict distress under controlled conditions than to permit ignorance and disease to inflict greater distress".(Kalat, 2012)

 

Kalat, J. (2012). Biological psychology. (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing